Structure Learning Training and Cognitive Flexibility
试验速览
- 阶段
- 不适用
- 状态
- 已完成
- 入组人数
- 108
- 试验地点
- 1
- 主要终点
- Working Memory Outcome 1 - Backwards Digit Span (BDS): Total items correct
研究概览
简要总结
The overarching aim of the project is to assess whether structure learning is an effective tool to train and improve cognitive flexibility and whether this is transferable to learning and other cognitive skills. The investigators will employ a multi-modal approach that combine both cognitive-behavioural and neuroimaging measures to examine how functional brain activations and/or cognitive performances are affected when participants go through a structure learning training paradigm relative to a working memory training paradigm (active control) or a no-training paradigm (passive control).
详细描述
Cognitive flexibility is critical for humans to perform complex tasks and ensures that humans exhibit appropriate behaviour in response to changing environments. Successful implementation of cognitive flexibility involves several sub-domains within executive functions. Prior researches on cognitive flexibility has portrayed it as various aspects of human cognition ranging from a cognitive skill related to set-shifting, or a by-product of cognitive processes, to part of the cognitive system. The operationalization of cognitive flexibility has been particularly difficult due to its multi-faceted nature. Current flexibility interventions and neuroimaging studies examining cognitive flexibility commonly utilise tasks that taps on to executive functions such as task-set switching or the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) task. Although effective, one concern related to using these tasks is that it does not tap merely into cognitive flexibility but also activate other executive functions such as inhibition and working memory. Hence, this reduces the precision and specificity of these tasks as training tools. The present project proposed structure learning as a more fundamental and apt training approach. It involves seeking patterns in the stochastic presentations of stimuli, without the need for explicit feedback and is in itself a basic building block for cognitive flexibility.
In the educational context, structure learning is analogous to patterning, a crucial cognitive ability that underpins mathematical and reading skills. Prior research has demonstrated a close relationship between pattern understanding and cognitive flexibility. Hence, structure learning training could potentially be beneficial in improving one's cognitive flexibility. Furthermore, emerging evidence has demonstrated that domain-general training of structure learning skills produced learning that transfer well beyond the learning task. However, there is a paucity in studies that examined whether structure learning training per se could produce generalisable improvements in cognitive flexibility. The present study aims to address this gap by examining if structure learning training, relative to working memory training and having no training, could produce changes in neural markers that relate to potential gains in cognitive flexibility.
研究设计
- 研究类型
- Interventional
- 分配方式
- Randomized
- 干预模型
- Parallel
- 主要目的
- Basic Science
- 盲法
- Single (Participant)
入排标准
- 年龄范围
- 18 Years 至 55 Years（Adult）
- 性别
- All
- 接受健康志愿者
- 是
入选标准
- •Healthy volunteer (male of female) between 18 and 55 years who gave written informed consent to participate
排除标准
- •Current and/or prior history of learning disabilities
- •Current and/or prior history of neurological disorder
- •Current and/or prior history of psychiatric disorder
- •Current and/or prior history of cardiovascular disorder
- •Predominantly left-handed
- •Contraindications for MRI (e.g., pacemakers, implanted pumps, metal objects in the body)
- •Claustrophobic
- •Pregnancy (females)
- •Lactation (females)
- •Pronounced visual or auditory impairments
研究组 & 干预措施
Structure Learning Training
The intervention group will receive structure learning training that tap on their ability to extract patterns from prior stimuli presentations to make predictions. Participants will be presented with visual sequences of symbols determined by frequency statistics and upon mastery, more complex context-based statistics. No feedback will be provided and participants are trained in an adaptive manner
干预措施: Structure Learning Training (Behavioral)
Passive Control
The passive control group will not receive any intervention but will receive the same pre-post cognitive-behavioural and neuroimaging intervention assessments.
结局指标
主要结局
Working Memory Outcome 1 - Backwards Digit Span (BDS): Total items correct
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Number of digit sequences that participant successfully recalled in the reverse order
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 1 - Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): Proportion of perseverative errors
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Proportion of error trials where participants incorrectly choose a deck based on the rule from the previous set
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 6 - Intra/Extra-Dimensional Set Shifting (IED): Learning rate
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Parameter extracted from Feature Reinforcement Model
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 11 - Probabilistic Reversal Learning (PRL): Trials to criterion in block 2 (Reversal)
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Number of trials before participant reach defined learning criterion during the Reversal phase
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 16 - Task Set Switching - Where (TSS-Where): Task switch cost in Accuracy
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Switch cost in terms of accuracy is defined as the difference between the accuracy in switch trials with that of repeat trials
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 5 - Intra/Extra-Dimensional Set Shifting (IED): Extra-dimensional reversal errors
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
This is the total number of errors made in Stage 9. The lower the better.
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 8 - Intra/Extra-Dimensional Set Shifting (IED): Dimension primacy
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Parameter extracted from Feature Reinforcement Model
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 9 - Probabilistic Reversal Learning (PRL): Perseveration
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Number of trials until the participant updates their response after the rule reversal.
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 19 - Colour Shape Task (CST): Task switch cost in RT
时间窗: Baseline (pre-intervention)
Switch cost in terms of reaction time (ms) is defined as the difference between the mean reaction time across switch trials with that of repeat trials. Used for matching between Control and Training groups
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 21 - Colour Shape Task (CST): Task switch cost in RT
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Switch cost in terms of reaction time (ms) is defined as the difference between the mean reaction time across switch trials with that of repeat trials
Structure Learning Outcome 1 - Performance Index (PI) Relative
时间窗: Across two weeks of intervention
Performance index (PI) is the minimum overlap between the distribution of participant responses and the distribution of presented targets per context. The overall PI is then the average of the performance indices across contexts. The PI relative is a normalised PI measure that quantifies participant's performance relative to random guessing.
Structure Learning Outcome 2 - Strategy choice
时间窗: Across two weeks of intervention
Strategy choice is the difference between the Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence from model matching to the response-based model and the KL divergence from model maximization to the response-based model. Negative strategy choice values indicate a strategy closer to matching, whereas positive values indicate a strategy closer to maximization.
Structure Learning Outcome 5 - Strategy shifting rate
时间窗: Across two weeks of intervention.
Rate of strategy change across the training sessions or days
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 2 - Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): Learning rate
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
This is a parameter extracted from a sequential learning model fitted to WCST data and represents how quickly participants updated their beliefs about the values associated with choices following respective negative and positive feedback.
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 4 - Intra/Extra-Dimensional Set Shifting (IED): Extra-dimensional set errors
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
The number of times that the subject failed to select the stimulus compatible with the current rule on the stage where the extra-dimensional shift occurs.
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 7 - Intra/Extra-Dimensional Set Shifting (IED): Choice determinism
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Parameter extracted from Feature Reinforcement Model
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 10 - Probabilistic Reversal Learning (PRL): Switch probability
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Number of switches in the participant responses following negative feedback (i.e. trap trials: when the less likely object is correct).
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 14 - Probabilistic Reversal Learning (PRL): Stickiness
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Parameter extracted from the Reinforcement Learning Model based on the Rescorla-Wagner rule.
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 17 - Task Set Switching - What (TSS-What): Task switch cost in RT
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Switch cost in terms of reaction time (ms) is defined as the difference between the mean reaction time across switch trials with that of repeat trials
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 18 - Task Set Switching - What (TSS-What): Task switch cost in Accuracy
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Switch cost in terms of accuracy is defined as the difference between the accuracy in switch trials with that of repeat trials
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 23 - Colour Shape Task (CST): Change in task switch cost in RT
时间窗: Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention)
Change in switch cost as indexed by reaction time between pre and post intervention
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 25 - Trail Making Test (TMT): Ratio between time to complete Trail B to Trail A
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Participants are asked to complete Trail A (draw lines to connect numbered items in sequence) and subsequently Trail B (draw lines to connect a set of items alternating between letters and numbers) as quickly and as accurately as possible. We then take the ratio of the completion time of Trail B to Trail A to examine completion time of Trail B relative to Trail A.
Working Memory Outcome 3 - Spatial Working Memory (SWM): Between search errors
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
The number of times the subject incorrectly revisits a box in which a token has previously been found. Calculated across all assessed four, six and eight token trials.
Structure Learning Outcome 3 - Strategy index (measured by the integral curve difference)
时间窗: Across two weeks of intervention.
Derived by calculating the integral of each participant's strategy curve and subtracting it from the integral of the exact matching curve, as defined by model matching across training.
Structure Learning Outcome 4 - Learning rate
时间窗: Across two weeks of intervention.
Rate of learning across the training sessions or days
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 12 - Probabilistic Reversal Learning (PRL): Learning rates
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Parameter extracted from the Reinforcement Learning Model based on the Rescorla-Wagner rule. Two learning rates i.e., one for positive error/reward and one for negative error/punishment can be extracted from the model.
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 15 - Task Set Switching - Where (TSS-Where): Task switch cost in RT
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Switch cost in terms of reaction time (ms) is defined as the difference between the mean reaction time across switch trials with that of repeat trials
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 3 - Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): Decision consistency
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
This is a parameter extracted from a sequential learning model fitted to WCST data and influenced the estimated probability of choosing a specific stimulus per trial. Larger values indicated increased exploitation whereas lower values indicated increased exploration.
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 13 - Probabilistic Reversal Learning (PRL): Reinforcement sensitivity
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Parameter extracted from the Reinforcement Learning Model based on the Rescorla-Wagner rule.
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 20 - Colour Shape Task (CST): Task switch cost in Accuracy
时间窗: Baseline (pre-intervention)
Switch cost in terms of accuracy is defined as the difference between the accuracy in switch trials with that of repeat trials. Used for matching between Control and Training groups
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 22 - Colour Shape Task (CST): Task switch cost in Accuracy
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Switch cost in terms of reaction time (ms) is defined as the difference between the mean reaction time across switch trials with that of repeat trials
Cognitive Flexibility Outcome 24 - Colour Shape Task (CST): Change in task switch cost in accuracy
时间窗: Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention)
Change in switch cost as indexed by accuracy between pre and post intervention
Inhibition Outcome 2 - Stroop Task: Interference measure for accuracy
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Difference between proportion correct of all congruent trials and proportion correct of all incongruent trials
Inhibition Outcome 4 - Stop Signal Task (SST): Stop Signal Reaction Time
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Estimation of the covert stop signal reaction time (SSRT) (the time required to stop the initiated go-process) using the integration method (see Verbruggen et al, 2019). The slower the SSRT the more difficult to stop the go-process. The faster the SSRT the easier to stop the go-process.
Working Memory Outcome 2 - Reading Span (RS): Number of correctly recalled digits
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Total number of correctly recalled digits across the different trials
Working Memory Outcome 4 - Spatial Working Memory (SWM): Strategy score
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
The number of times a subject begins a new search pattern from the same box they started with previously. If they always begin a search from the same starting point we infer that the subject is employing a planned strategy for finding the tokens. Therefore a low score indicates high strategy use (1 = they always begin the search from the same box), a high score indicates that they are beginning their searches from many different boxes. Calculated across assessed trials with 6 tokens or more.
Inhibition Outcome 1 - Stroop Task: Interference measure for RT
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Difference between response latency of all correct congruent trials and response latency of all correct incongruent trials
Inhibition Outcome 3 - Stop Signal Task (SST): Probability of Go responses on Stop trials
时间窗: One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention)
Probability of reacting in Stop Signal Trials
次要结局
- Creativity Outcome 6 - Alternate Uses Task (AUT): Total fluency score(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Language and Numeracy Outcome 4 - Woodcock Johnson IV (WJIV): Scores from Test 5 Calculation(One week before pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention))
- Language and Numeracy Outcome 5 - Woodcock Johnson IV (WJIV): Scores from Test 9 Sentence Reading Fluency(One week before pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention))
- Sleep Quality Outcome 1 - Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI): Global PSQI Score(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Empathy Outcome 1 - Empathy Quotient (EQ): Empathy Quotient Score(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Language and Numeracy Outcome 1 - Woodcock Johnson IV (WJIV): Scores from Test 1 Letter-Word Identification(One week before pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 1 - Social Value Orientation: Weighted average(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 4 - Trust Game: Proportion of trust choices(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 6 - Risk Preference: Risk Preference (Positive)(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Personality Outcome 1 - Big Five Inventory: Score from Questionnaire(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Perceived Stress Outcome 1 - Perceived Stress Scale (PSS): Perceived Stress Scale Score(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 2 - Prisoner's Dilemma: Proportion of cooperative choices(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 7 - Ambiguity Aversion: Ambiguity preference(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 8 - Personal Relative Deprivation Scale: Total personal relative deprivation score(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 10 - Cooperativeness and Competitiveness Personality Scale: Score for Competitiveness dimension(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Language and Numeracy Outcome 2 - Woodcock Johnson IV (WJIV): Scores from Test 2 Applied Problems(One week before pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention))
- Language and Numeracy Outcome 3 - Woodcock Johnson IV (WJIV): Scores from Test 4 Passage Comprehension(One week before pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention))
- Language and Numeracy Outcome 6 - Woodcock Johnson IV (WJIV): Scores from Test 10 Maths Fact Fluency(One week before pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 3 - Trust Game: Trust preference(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 5 - Trust Game: Proportion of cooperative choices(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Social Decision Making Outcome 9 - Cooperativeness and Competitiveness Personality Scale: Score for Cooperativeness dimension(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Tolerance of Uncertainty Outcome 2 - Need for Closure Scale: Score from Questionnaire(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Tolerance of Uncertainty Outcome 4 - Racial Essentialism Scale: Score from Questionnaire(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 1 - Verbal Fluency Test (VFT): Mean fluency score (Category)(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 4 - Verbal Fluency Test (VFT): Average shortest path length(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Tolerance of Uncertainty Outcome 1 - Receptiveness to Opposing Views: Score from Questionnaire(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Tolerance of Uncertainty Outcome 3 - Curiosity and Exploration: Score from Questionnaire(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- Multilingualism Outcome 1 - Clip-Q Singapore Language History Questionnaire: Score from Questionnaire(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Perceived Social Support Outcome 1 - Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support: Score from Questionnaire(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Imaging Outcome 1 - GABA+ levels in left DLPFC(At pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention) and at post-MRI scan with minimum two-weeks interval (post-intervention))
- Imaging Outcome 3 - Resting-state functional magnetic imaging (rsfMRI): Whole brain search analysis (beta value)(At pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention) and at post-MRI scan with minimum two-weeks interval (post-intervention))
- Imaging Outcome 2 - GABA+ levels in right DLPFC(At pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention) and at post-MRI scan with minimum two-weeks interval (post-intervention))
- Imaging Outcome 5 - Resting-state functional magnetic imaging (rsfMRI): Group independent component (group ICA) analysis (weighted component score)(At pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention) and at post-MRI scan with minimum two-weeks interval (post-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 2 - Verbal Fluency Test (VFT): Mean fluency score (Letter)(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 5 - Verbal Fluency Test (VFT): Modularity(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 7 - Alternate Uses Task (AUT): Total originality score(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 8 - Alternate Uses Task (AUT): Total flexibility score(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 9 - Remote Associates Test (RAT): Percentage of correct solutions(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- Imaging Outcome 4 - Resting-state functional magnetic imaging (rsfMRI): Region of interest (ROI) based analysis (beta value)(At pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention) and at post-MRI scan with minimum two-weeks interval (post-intervention))
- Imaging Outcome 6 - Resting-state functional magnetic imaging (rsfMRI): Functional connectivity analysis(At pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention) and at post-MRI scan with minimum two-weeks interval (post-intervention))
- Imaging Outcome 7 - Multiparameter mapping (MPM): Whole brain voxel-based quantification analyses(At pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention) and at post-MRI scan with minimum two-weeks interval (post-intervention))
- Imaging Outcome 8 - Multiparameter mapping (MPM): ROI analyses(At pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention) and at post-MRI scan with minimum two-weeks interval (post-intervention))
- General Intelligence Outcome 1 - Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM): Total correct(Baseline (pre-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 3 - Verbal Fluency Test (VFT): Clustering coefficient(One week after post-MRI scan (post-intervention))
- General Intelligence Outcome 2 - Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM): Change in accuracy score(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
- General Intelligence Outcome 3 - Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence Block Design (WASI-B): Block design score(One week before pre-MRI scan (pre-intervention))
- General Intelligence Outcome 4 - Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence Vocabulary (WASI-V): Vocabulary score(Baseline (pre-intervention))
- Creativity Outcome 10 - Creative Mindset: Score from Questionnaire(Baseline (pre-intervention) and 8 weeks (after post-MRI scan, post-intervention))
研究者
SH Annabel Chen, PhD
Professor
Nanyang Technological University