Impact of Diet and Gut Microbiota on Trimethylamine-N-oxide Production and Fate in Humans

Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) is a carbon-containing organic compound formed from dietary precursors including TMAO (high in fish), choline (high in eggs) and carnitine (high in beef). However, TMAO production is highly variable (Zhang AQ et al., 1999), appears to be influenced by genetics (Cashman JR et al., 2001) and gut microbiome (Wang Z et al., 2011; Koeth RA et al., 2013), and is linked to heart disease in cardiac patients (Wang Z et al., 2011) and colorectal cancer among post-menopausal women (Bae S et al., 2015). At present, very little is known about the metabolic fate of TMAO and how it is used within the human body (Bain MA et al., 2005). This study sought to (i) quantify the effects of eggs, beef and fish on TMAO biomarkers in plasma, muscle, urine and stool; (ii) examine the metabolic fate of supplemental TMAO labeled isotopically with deuterium; and (iii) determine whether TMAO production is a function of the gut microbiome.

To accomplish these objectives, a randomized, controlled cross-over study was conducted in healthy male participants (n=40). The study incorporated four arms comprised of study meals representing animal sources of TMAO (egg, beef and fish) along with a fruit control. The study meals were (i) 3 whole hard-boiled eggs; (ii) 6 oz beef (Philly-Gourmet Beef Patties); (iii) 6 oz fish (cod fillet); and (iv) 2 single-serve packages of Mott's natural applesauce. Each meal was served with one cup of water, administered in a single day and separated by a 1-week washout period. For the fruit control, 50 mg deuterium-labeled methyl-d9-TMAO (d9-TMAO; Cambridge Isotopes) was added to one cup of water for oral consumption to enable the tracing of the metabolic fate of TMAO, and to assess its bioavailability and clearance.

Baseline blood sample was obtained by a phlebotomist using a standard venipuncture procedure, and participants collected their baseline urine sample. They also turned in self-collected baseline 24 h urine and stool samples. Following the consumption of the study meal, serial blood samples were collected at 15, 30 min and 1, 2, 4 and 6 h, while urine samples were collected throughout the 6 h study period. At 4.5 h, participants were provided a fixed fruit snack (i.e., applesauce) and water. On the day that participants consumed the d9-TMAO tracer, participants collected their urine throughout the next 24 h and their stool at the next bowel movement. In addition, a subset of this group (n=6) were invited to undergo a muscle biopsy procedure 6 h after the fruit + d9-TMAO tracer consumption.