Effects of Attentional Focus and Feedback Timing on Children's Tennis Motor Skill Learning
试验速览
- 阶段
- 不适用
- 状态
- 已完成
- 发起方
- 入组人数
- 160
- 试验地点
- 4
- 主要终点
- Change in Tennis Skill-Performance Attainment Score From Baseline to Week 12
研究概览
简要总结
This study evaluated how different attentional focus instructions and feedback timing affect tennis motor skill learning in children aged 9 to 12 years. The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design involving four primary schools in Shenzhen, China.
Each participating school implemented one of four attentional focus conditions: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, or neutral instruction. Within each school, eligible children were assigned to either immediate feedback or delayed summary feedback, resulting in eight experimental conditions. All participants completed the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks, with three 90-minute training sessions per week.
The study assessed children's performance in four tennis skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Skill-performance attainment and technique evaluation were assessed before and after the intervention. Retention and transfer of the learned skills were additionally assessed two weeks after completion of the intervention. The study was designed to determine whether attentional focus, feedback timing, or the interaction between these two factors influences children's acquisition, retention, and transfer of tennis motor skills.
详细描述
The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design to investigate the effects of attentional focus and feedback timing on children's tennis motor skill learning. The first experimental factor was attentional focus, with four levels: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, and neutral instruction. The second factor was feedback timing, with two levels: immediate feedback and delayed summary feedback.
The four attentional focus conditions were implemented at the school level. Each participating school was assigned one attentional focus condition according to the study implementation arrangement. Within each school, eligible participants were balanced according to sex, grade, and baseline tennis skill level and were then randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to either the immediate-feedback condition or the delayed-feedback condition using a computer-generated random sequence. This procedure resulted in eight experimental conditions.
All groups received the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. The training program included forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. The training content, progression, facilities, equipment, and instructor qualifications were standardized across study sites. The experimental differences between groups were limited to attentional focus instructions and the timing of feedback.
In the distal external-focus condition, children were instructed to focus on outcomes such as the ball's target location and flight trajectory. In the proximal external-focus condition, they focused on the interaction between the racket and the ball. In the internal-focus condition, they focused on body movements, movement technique, and force production. The neutral-instruction condition used conventional instructional language without a specific attentional focus cue. Participants receiving immediate feedback were provided with instructional or technical feedback immediately after each performance, whereas participants receiving delayed summary feedback received feedback after completion of a practice set.
Tennis motor skill learning was evaluated using standardized assessments of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve performance. The study examined skill acquisition after the 12-week intervention and subsequently assessed retention and transfer of the learned skills after a post-intervention interval.
研究设计
- 研究类型
- Interventional
- 分配方式
- Non Randomized
- 干预模型
- Factorial
- 主要目的
- Other
- 盲法
- None
盲法说明
No masking was implemented because participants and coaches were necessarily aware of the assigned attentional focus and feedback conditions. Outcome assessors and data analysts were not masked. All outcome assessments were conducted using predefined standardized procedures.
入排标准
- 年龄范围
- 9 Years 至 12 Years（Child）
- 性别
- All
- 接受健康志愿者
- 是
入选标准
- •Children aged 9 to 12 years and enrolled in Grade 4 or Grade
- •Have basic proficiency in the four tennis motor skills of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve and are able to participate in regular tennis training.
- •Right-handed.
- •In good physical condition, with no serious medical condition that would interfere with participation in tennis training.
- •Willing to participate in the study, with written informed consent provided by a parent or legal guardian.
排除标准
- •Serious cardiopulmonary disease, musculoskeletal injury, neurological disease, or any other condition that makes participation in moderate-intensity physical activity inappropriate.
- •A diagnosed psychiatric disorder or cognitive or behavioral condition that substantially interferes with understanding instructional cues or completing study assessments.
- •Recent acute injury or pain, or medical advice to temporarily refrain from physical activity.
- •Unable to complete the training, testing, or study data collection procedures according to the study protocol.
研究组 & 干预措施
Distal External Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Distal External Attentional Focus (Behavioral)
Distal External Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Immediate Feedback (Behavioral)
Distal External Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Distal External Attentional Focus (Behavioral)
Distal External Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Delayed Summary Feedback (Behavioral)
Proximal External Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Proximal External Attentional Focus (Behavioral)
Proximal External Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Immediate Feedback (Behavioral)
Proximal External Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set.
干预措施: Proximal External Attentional Focus (Behavioral)
Proximal External Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set.
干预措施: Delayed Summary Feedback (Behavioral)
Internal Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Internal Attentional Focus (Behavioral)
Internal Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Immediate Feedback (Behavioral)
Internal Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set.
干预措施: Internal Attentional Focus (Behavioral)
Internal Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set.
干预措施: Delayed Summary Feedback (Behavioral)
Neutral Instruction + Immediate Feedback
Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Neutral Instruction (Behavioral)
Neutral Instruction + Immediate Feedback
Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance.
干预措施: Immediate Feedback (Behavioral)
Neutral Instruction + Delayed Feedback
Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set.
干预措施: Neutral Instruction (Behavioral)
Neutral Instruction + Delayed Feedback
Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set.
干预措施: Delayed Summary Feedback (Behavioral)
结局指标
主要结局
Change in Tennis Skill-Performance Attainment Score From Baseline to Week 12
时间窗: Baseline and Week 12
Tennis skill-performance attainment was assessed for four tennis motor skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Participants completed predefined performance tasks, and their performance was evaluated according to prespecified task-specific scoring criteria. The primary outcome was the change in skill-performance attainment from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
Change in Tennis Technique Evaluation Score From Baseline to Week 12
时间窗: Baseline and Week 12
Tennis technique was evaluated for forehand, backhand, volley, and serve using standardized technique-evaluation criteria. The assessment focused on movement structure, body coordination, racket and ball control, and overall technical quality. The primary outcome was the change in technique evaluation score from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
次要结局
- Tennis Skill Retention Score at Week 14(Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention))
- Tennis Skill Transfer Score at Week 14(Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention))
研究者
Liying Yao
Principal Investigator
Guangzhou University