Household Income and Child Development in the First Three Years of Life (Phase 1) Household Income and Child Development in the First Years of Life (Phase 2)
Overview
- Phase
- Not Applicable
- Intervention
- Not specified
- Conditions
- Child Development
- Sponsor
- University of California, Irvine
- Enrollment
- 1000
- Locations
- 1
- Primary Endpoint
- Child Language Development: Vocabulary
- Status
- Active, not recruiting
- Last Updated
- last year
Overview
Brief Summary
Recent advances in developmental neuroscience suggest that experiences early in life can have profound and enduring influences on the developing brain. Family economic resources shape the nature of many of these experiences, yet the extent to which they affect children's development is unknown. The project's team of neuroscientists, economists and developmental psychologists is seeking to fill important gaps in scientific knowledge about the role of economic resources in early development by evaluating the first U.S. randomized controlled trial to determine whether unconditional cash gift payments have a causal effect on the cognitive, socio-emotional and brain development of infants and toddlers in low-income U.S. families.
Specifically, 1,000 mothers of infants with incomes below the federal poverty line from four diverse U.S. communities were recruited from post-partum wards and are receiving monthly cash gift payments by debit card for the first 76 months of the child's life. Parents in the experimental group and receiving $333 per month ($3,996 per year), whereas parents in the active comparator group are receiving a nominal monthly payment of $20. In order to understand the impacts of the added income on children's cognitive and behavioral development, the investigators are assessing treatment group differences at ages 4 (this lab assessment was postponed from age 3 to age 4 due to Covid-19), 6, and 8 in lab-administered measures of cognitive, language, and self-regulation development and maternal reports of socio-emotional development. A number of other maternal-reported child outcome measures were gathered at ages 1, 2 and 3. Brain circuitry may be sensitive to the effects of early experience even before early behavioral differences can be detected. In order to understand the impacts of added income on children's brain functioning at age 4, 6, and 8, the investigators will assess, during a lab visit, experimental/active comparator group differences in measures of brain activity (electroencephalography [EEG]). The targeted age for each data collection wave is around the child's birthday, i.e. at 12 months, 24 months, 36 months, 48 months, 72 months, and 96 months.
To understand how family economic behavior, parenting, and parent stress and well-being change in response to income enhancement, the investigators will assess experimental/active comparator differences in family expenditures, food insecurity, housing and neighborhood quality, family routines and time use, parent stress, mental health and cognition, parenting practices, and child care and preschool arrangements. School readiness and outcomes are being assessed at ages 6 and 8. This study will thus provide the first definitive understanding of the extent to which income plays a causal role in determining early child cognitive, socio-emotional and brain development among low-income families.
Detailed Description
In the Baby's First Years (BFY) study, one thousand infants born to mothers with incomes falling below the federal poverty threshold in four metropolitan areas in the United States were assigned at random within each of the metropolitan areas to one of two cash gift conditions. The sites are: New York City, the greater New Orleans metropolitan area, the greater Omaha metropolitan area, and the Twin Cities. IRB and recruiting issues led to a distribution of the 1,000 mothers across sites of 121 in one site (the Twin Cities), 295 in two of the other sites (New Orleans and Omaha) and 289 in New York. (The investigators have also randomly sampled 80 of the participating families in the Twin Cities and New Orleans to participate in an in-depth qualitative study, but do not elaborate on those plans in this document.) Mothers were recruited in postpartum wards of the 12 participating hospitals shortly after giving birth and, after consenting, were administered a 30-minute baseline interview. They then were asked to agree to receive the cash gifts. The "high-cash gift" treatment group mothers (40% of all mothers) are receiving unconditioned cash payments of $333 per month ($4,000 per year) via debit card for 76 months. Mothers in the "low-cash gift" comparator group (60% of all mothers) are receiving a nominal payment - $20 per month, delivered in the same way and also for 76 months. The 40/60 randomization assignment is stratified by site, but not by hospitals, within each of the four sites. The investigators have worked with state and local officials to ensure that, to the extent feasible, the cash gifts payments are not considered countable income for the purposes of determining benefit levels from social assistance programs. BFY was originally formulated to study the effects of monthly unconditional cash transfers on child development for the first three years of life, with the cash gifts set to be distributed for 40 months (3 years, 4 months). In response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the need to postpone in-person research activities, the cash transfers were extended for an additional year, through 52 months (4 years, 4 months), enabling us to postpone in-person direct child assessments to age 4. The investigators successfully arranged funding to extend the cash gifts for a total of 76 months - the approximate boundary between early and middle childhood - and informed the study participants in August 2022 about the additional 2-year extension of cash transfer. The targeted age for each data collection wave is around the child's birthday, i.e. at 12 months, 24 months, 36 months, 48 months, 72 months, and 96 months. Interviews conducted at child ages 1, 2 and 3 provided information about family functioning as well as several maternal reports of developmentally-appropriate measures of children's cognitive and behavioral development. At ages 4, 6 and 8 measures of cognitive, language, and self-regulation development were or will be administered in university labs, while socio-emotional development is assessed via maternal report. EEG-based measures of brain activity were assessed in the home at age 1 and in labs at ages 4, 6 and 8. At age 6 and 8 the investigators will collect school behavior and engagement data. Conditional on participants' consent and our success in securing agreements with state and county agencies, the investigators are also collecting state and local administrative data regarding parental employment, utilization of public benefits such as Medicaid and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Programs (SNAP), and any involvement in child protective services. The family process measures that the investigators will gather are based on two theories of change surrounding the income supplements: that increased investment and reduced stress will facilitate children's healthy development. The investigators are obtaining measures of both of these pathways annually. Investment pathway: Additional resources enable parents to buy goods and services for their families and children that support cognitive development. These include higher quality housing, nutrition and non-parental child care; more cognitively stimulating home environments and learning opportunities outside of the home; and, by reducing or restructuring work hours, more parental time spent with children. Stress pathway: A second pathway is that additional economic resources may reduce parents' own stress and improve their mental health. This may allow parents to devote more positive attention to their children, thus providing a more predictable family life, less conflicted relationships, and warmer and more responsive interactions. The compensation difference between families in the high and low cash gift groups will boost family incomes by $3,760 per year, an amount shown in the economics and developmental psychology literatures to be associated with socially significant and policy relevant improvements in children's school achievement. After accounting for likely attrition, a total sample size of 800 at age 4, 6 and 8 years, divided 40/60 between high and low payment groups, provides sufficient statistical power to detect meaningful (roughly .20 SD) differences in cognitive, emotional and brain functioning, and key dimensions of family context. Measures and preregistered hypotheses about child- and family-based measures at all data collection waves are shown in the two tables in the Statistical Analysis Plan in "Other Documents" below; child-focused preregistered hypotheses are presented in Appendix Table 9 and maternal and family focused preregistered hypotheses are presented in Appendix Table 10. The investigators will update this registry with Age 8 measures and preregistered hypotheses before data collection begins in July 2026. The lab-based assessments at child ages 6 and 8 are part of Phase 2 of the project. The Phase 1 analysis plan covers ages 1-4.
Investigators
Greg Duncan
Professor
University of California, Irvine
Eligibility Criteria
Inclusion Criteria
- •mother 18 years or older;
- •household income below the federal poverty threshold in the calendar year prior to the interview, counting the newborn;
- •infant admitted to the newborn nursery and not requiring admittance to the intensive care unit;
- •residence in the state of recruitment;
- •mother not "highly likely" to move to a different state or country in the next 12 months;
- •infant to be discharged in the custody of the mother;
- •English or Spanish speaking (necessary for administration of instruments used to measure some of the child outcomes);
- •singleton birth
Exclusion Criteria
- •Mothers will not be eligible unless all of the above eight criteria are met.
Outcomes
Primary Outcomes
Child Language Development: Vocabulary
Time Frame: Age 8
Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary (EOWPVT) monolingual and bilingual version. Score range monolingual version: 0-185, bilingual version: 0-180; higher scores indicate better performance. Because the two versions of the test are not co-normed, the primary outcome will be a derived "conceptual score" or sum of the raw scores on all individual items that appear on both versions of the test. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: Martin, N., \& Brownell, R. (2011). Expressive one-word picture vocabulary test (4th ed.). Novato: Academic Therapy Publications. If reporting a score on a scale, please include the unabbreviated scale title, the minimum and maximum values, and whether higher scores mean a better or worse outcome.
Child Language Development: Maternal Concern for Language Delay
Time Frame: Age 36 months
Measured by the sum of the two questions listed below included in the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS): 1. Do you have any concerns about how your child talks and makes speech sounds? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little) 2. Do you have any concerns about how your child understands what you say? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little)". Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Language Development outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth \& Vandermeer Press, 1997.
Child Executive Function & Behavioral Regulation: Executive Function
Time Frame: Age 8
Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS); score range: 0-100; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: Carlson, S.M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical report. Carlson, S. M., \& Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.
Child Executive Function & Behavioral Regulation: Inhibitory Control and Attention
Time Frame: Age 8
Measured by the NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention task. Score range: 0-30; higher scores indicate better performance.Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: National Institutes of Health and Northwestern University (2006-2023). NIH Toolbox® for Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function Administrator's Manual. NIHToolbox.org. Gershon, R. C., Wagster, M. V., Hendrie, H. C., Fox, N. A., Cook, K. F., \& Nowinski, C. J. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3), S2-S6. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182872e5f Weintraub S, Bauer PJ, Zelazo PD, Wallner-Allen K, Dikmen SS, Heaton RK, Tulsky DS, Slotkin J, Blitz DL, Carlozzi NE, Havlik RJ, Beaumont JL, Mungas D, Manly JJ, Borosh BG, Nowinski CJ, Gershon RC. I. NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): introduction and pediatric data. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2013 Aug;78(4):1-15. doi: 10.1111/mono.12031. PMID: 23952199
Child Executive Function & Behavioral Regulation: Working Memory
Time Frame: Age 8
Measured by Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children: 5th Edition (WISC-V) subtest Digit Span. Score Range 0-54. Higher scores indicate better performance. We will pre-register three scores (MEFS, Flanker, Digit Span),with a plan to do a confirmatory factor analysis and pre-register the impact on the common factor. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: Wechsler, D. (2014). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V). Bloomington, MN: Pearson.
Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Behavior/Problems
Time Frame: Age 8
Measured by the Brief Problem Monitor (BPM), assesses attentional, behavioral, and internalizing problems in children. 19 questions and answer choices. Score range: 0-38; higher scores indicate more behavioral problems. Expect lower scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., Ivanova, M. Y., \& Rescorla, L. A. (2011). Manual for the ASEBA Brief Problem Monitor (BPM). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, \& Families.: ASEBA.
Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Maternal Concern for Behavioral and Social-Emotional Problems
Time Frame: Age 36 months
Measured by the sum of the two questions listed below, which are part of the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS): 1. Do you have any concerns about how your child behaves? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little) 2. Do you have any concerns about how your child gets along with others? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little). Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Reference: Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth \& Vandermeer Press, 1997.
Child Brain Function: Resting Brain Function
Time Frame: Age 8
Measured by high-density in-lab electroencephalography (EEG). Ages 6 and 8 Primary hypothesis: Because of limitations in power expected with multiple testing adjustments, we are preregistering a single composite index of mid-to-high-frequency whole-brain power summed across alpha, beta, and gamma bands (defined as between 7 and 45 Hz). This frequency composite index sums absolute power (μV2) across all single-Hz intervals in the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma bands (7-45 Hz). We hypothesize that, in the eyes-closed condition, the high-cash gift group will show more power in this composite relative to the low-cash gift group. One-tailed t-tests will be used to test this directional hypothesis. See the Statistical Analysis Plan (Phase 2) for additional details and references.
Child Health, Sleep
Time Frame: Age 36 months
Measured by an adapted Short Form of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS™). Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 15. Higher score indicates a better outcome. Reference: Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., ... \& Pilkonis, P. A. (2012). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral sleep medicine, 10(1), 6-24.
Child Health, Overall Health, Medical Care, Diagnosis of Condition or Disability
Time Frame: Age 36 months
Measured by an index of six items (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items). Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 14. Higher score indicates a worse outcome. Reference: Halim, M. L., Yoshikawa, H., \& Amodio, D. M. (2013). Cross-generational effects of discrimination among immigrant mothers: Perceived discrimination predicts child's healthcare visits for illness. Health Psychology, 32(2), 203.
Child Academic Achievement: Reading
Time Frame: Age 8
Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Letter-Word ID. Score range: 0-78; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: McGrew, K. S., \& Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.
Child Academic Achievement: Reading Comprehension
Time Frame: Age 8
Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Passage Comprehension. Score range: 0-52. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: McGrew, K. S., \& Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.
Child Academic Achievement: Math
Time Frame: Age 8
Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Letter-Word ID. Score range: 0-78; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: McGrew, K. S., \& Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.
Child Fluid Reasoning
Time Frame: Age 6
Measured by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) fluid reasoning index, assessed through a composite of two tasks: picture concepts (score range: 0-27; higher scores indicate better performance) and matrix reasoning (score range: 0-26; higher scores indicate better performance). Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Note: The Picture Concept subtest had to be dropped on 9/17/2024 due to floor effects. Reference: Wechsler, D. (2012). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Child Perceptual Reasoning
Time Frame: Age 8
Measured by the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-Second Edition (WASI-II) perceptual reasoning index, assessed through a composite of two tasks: block design (score range: up to 8 years old: 0-57; \> 9 yo: 0-71; higher scores indicate better performance) and matrix reasoning (up to 8 years old: 0-24; \> 9 yo: 0-30; higher scores indicate better performance). Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Reference: Wechsler, D. (2011). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-Second Edition (WASI-II). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.
Child Physiological Stress: Nail Cortisol
Time Frame: Age 8
Child nail samples will be collected to yield a measure of the concentration of cortisol in pg/mg (picograms per milligram). To ensure cortisol levels are within an expected range, values above 500 and equal to or less than 0 will be assigned a missing value. To account for potential outliers, values below 500 will be truncated at the 99th percentile. Cortisol values will be log-transformed. We hypothesize the high-cash gift group will have lower cortisol values when compared to the low-cash gift group. If both fingernail and toenail are collected we will control for whether fingernail or toenail. Reference: Phillips, R., Kraeuter, A. K., McDermott, B., Lupien, S., \& Sarnyai, Z. (2021). Human nail cortisol as a retrospective biomarker of chronic stress: A systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 123, 104903.
Maternal Attentional Resources
Time Frame: Age 8
NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test. Age-corrected standardized score. We expect a higher value of the maternal Flanker score for the high-cash gift group than the low-cash gift mothers. Higher scores indicate better performance. Prior to the Flanker administration, respondent/mother will be asked to listen and reflect for a minute on these questions: "Imagine that an unforeseen event requires of you an immediate $1,000 expense. Are there ways in which you may be able to come up with that amount of money on a very short notice? How would you go about it? How stressful would it be to manage this? Gershon et al. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3) S2-S6. Slotkin J, et al. (2012) NIH Toolbox Scoring and Interpretation Guide (Northwestern and NIH). Zelazo PD, et al. (2013) II. NIH Toolbox cognition battery (CB): Measuring executive function and attention. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 78:16-33.
Secondary Outcomes
- Child Language Development: Language Milestones(Age 12 months)
- Child Language Development: Vocabulary(Age 24 months)
- Child Executive Function: Executive Function(Age 48 months)
- Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Behavior(Age 12 months)
- Child Socio-Emotional Processing: Problems(Age 24 months)
- Child Pre-Literacy(Age 48 months)
- Child Intelligence Quotient(Age 48 months)
- Child Resting Brain Function(Age 8)
- Child Task-Related Brain Function(Age 48 months)
- Child Health: Body Mass Index (BMI)(Age 8)
- Child Health, Sleep(Age 24 months)
- Child Health, Physiological Stress(Age 48 months)
- Child Health, Overall Health, Medical Care, Diagnosis of Condition or Disability(Age 24 months)
- Child Health, Overall Health, Diagnosis of Condition or Disability(Age 48 months)
- Child Health, Overall Health(Age 8)
- Child Health: Chronic Health Condition(Age 8)
- Child Epigenetic Pace of Aging(Age 8)
- Child DNA Methylation(Age 8)
- Child Nutrition: Consumption of Healthy Foods(Age 8)
- Child Nutrition: Consumption of Healthy Food(Age 6)
- Child Nutrition: Consumption of Unhealthy Foods(Age 8)
- Any Maternal Concern for Developmental Delay: Total "Predictive Concerns" in the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS)(Age 36 months)
- Any Maternal Concern for Developmental Delay: Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS)(Age 36 months)
- Diagnosis of Developmental Condition(Age 8)
- Child Special Services (IEP)(Age 8)
- Household Economic Hardship: Household Poverty Rate(Age 8)
- Household Economic Hardship: Index of Economic Stress(Age 8)
- Household Economic Hardship: Index of Ecomomic Stress(Age 6)
- Household Economic Hardship: Maternal Hardship(Age 8)
- Household Economic Hardship: Index of Food Insecurity(Age 48 months)
- Social Services Receipt; Number of Benefits Received by Mother(Age 36 months)
- Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Time to Labor Market Re-entry From Birth(Age 12 months)
- Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Time to Full-Time Labor Market Reentry From Birth(Age 12 months)
- Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Mother's Labor Market Participation(Age 8)
- Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Mother's Education and Training Attainment(Age 36 months)
- Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Mother's Education Attainment(Age 8)
- Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Mother's Training Attainment(Age 8)
- Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation: Maternal Earnings(Age 8)
- Child-Focused Expenditures: Index of Expenditures Since Birth(Age 12 months)
- Child-Focused Expenditures: Index of Expenditures in Past 30 Days(Age 48 months)
- Child-focused Expenditures: Index of Child-Focused Expenditures in Past 30 Days(Age 6)
- Child-focused Expenditures: Index of Child-focused Expenditures in Past 30 Days(Age 8)
- Child-focused Expenditures: Index of Expenditures on All Children in the Household, Including Target Child(Age 8)
- Child-Focused Expenditures: Cost of Paid Child Care(Age 48 months)
- Child-Focused Expenditures: Use of Center-Based Care(Age 36 months)
- Housing and Neighborhoods: Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety(Age 36 months)
- Housing and Neighborhoods: Index of Housing Quality(Age 24 months)
- Housing and Neighborhoods: Excessive Residential Mobility(Age 36 months)
- Housing and Neighborhoods: Homelessness(Age 36 months)
- Housing and Neighborhoods: Neighborhood Poverty(Age 8)
- Family and Maternal Perceived Stress: Perceived Stress(Age 36 months)
- Family and Maternal Perceived Stress: Parenting Stress(Age 48 months)
- Maternal Happiness and Optimism: Global Happiness(Age 36 months)
- Maternal Happiness(Age 8)
- Maternal Happiness and Optimism: Optimism(Age 36 months)
- Maternal Physiological Stress: Maternal Hair Cortisol(Age 48 months)
- Maternal Executive Function(Age 8)
- Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Depression(Age 8)
- Maternal Mental Health: Index of Maternal Anxiety(Age 8)
- Maternal Mental Health: Index 1 of Maternal Anxiety(Age 36 months)
- Maternal Mental Health: Index 2 of Maternal Anxiety(Age 36 months)
- Maternal Substance Abuse: Alcohol and Cigarette Use(Age 36 months)
- Maternal Substance Abuse: Opioid Use(Age 36 months)
- Chaos in the Home: Index of Chaos in the Home(Age 24 months)
- Maternal Relationships: Physical Abuse(Age 24 months)
- Maternal Relationships: Frequency of Arguing(Age 24 months)
- Maternal Relationships: Relationship Quality(Age 36 months)
- Maternal Physical Health: Global Health(Age 8)
- Maternal Physical Health: Sleep(Age 36 months)
- Maternal Physical Health: Body Mass Index(Age 8)
- Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Adult Word Count(Age 12 months)
- Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Conversational Turns(Age 12 months)
- Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Index of Mother's Positive Parenting Behaviors(Age 8)
- Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Maternal Language Quantity(Age 8)
- Parent-Child Interaction Quality: Maternal Language Quality(Age 8)
- Maternal Epigenetic Pace of Aging(Age 8)
- Maternal DNA Methylation(Age 48 months)
- Frequency of Parent-Child Activity: Self-Report of Parent-Child Activities(Age 8)
- Frequency of Parent-Child Activity: Child Meal and Sleep Routine Index(Age 8)
- Maternal Discipline: Spanking Discipline Strategy(Age 12 months)
- Maternal Discipline; Spanking Discipline Strategy(Age 36 months)
- Maternal Discipline: Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC)(Age 8)
- Child School Retention(Age 8)
- Child Engagement in School(Age 8)
- Child School Suspensions(Age 8)
- Child School Attendance(Age 8)
- School Quality(Age 8)
- Parent School Involvement(Age 8)
- Enrichment Activities: Child Enrichment(Age 8)
- Enrichment Activities: Child Lessons, Sports, Etc. Activity Participation(Age 8)